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The Acts of the Apostles (Ancient Greek: Πράξεις τῶν Ἀποστόλων, Práxeis tôn Apostólōn; Latin: Āctūs Apostolōrum), often referred to simply as Acts, is the fifth book of the New Testament; it tells of the founding of the Christian church and the spread of its message to the Roman empire.[1]
Acts is the second half of a two-part work, referred to as Luke-Acts, by the same anonymous author, referred to as Luke the Evangelist, and usually dated to around 80-90 CE.[2][3] The first part, the Gospel of Luke, tells how God fulfilled his plan for the world's salvation through the life, death and resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth, the promised Messiah. Acts continues the story of Christianity in the 1st century, beginning with the Ascension of Christ. The early chapters, set in Jerusalem, describe the Day of Pentecost (the coming of the Holy Spirit) and the growth of the church in Jerusalem. Initially the Jews are receptive to the Christian message, but soon they turn against the followers of the Messiah. Rejected by the Jews, under the guidance of the Apostle Peter the message is taken to the Gentiles. The later chapters tell of Paul's conversion, his mission in Asia Minor and the Aegean, and finally his imprisonment in Rome, where, as the book ends, he awaits trial.
Luke-Acts is an attempt to answer a theological problem, namely how the Messiah of the Jews came to have an overwhelmingly non-Jewish church; the answer it provides, and its central theme, is that the message of Christ was sent to the Gentiles because the Jews rejected it.[1]
Contents [hide]
1 Composition and setting
1.1 Title, unity of Luke-Acts, authorship and date
1.2 Genre, sources and historicity of Acts
1.3 Audience and authorial intent
1.4 Manuscripts
2 Structure and content
2.1 Structure
2.2 Outline
2.3 Content
3 Theology
4 Comparison with other writings
4.1 Gospel of Luke
4.2 Pauline epistles
5 See also
6 References
7 Bibliography
8 External links
Composition and setting[edit]
Main article: Authorship of Luke–Acts
Ministry of the Apostles: Russian icon by Fyodor Zubov, 1660
Title, unity of Luke-Acts, authorship and date[edit]
The title "Acts of the Apostles" (Greek Πράξεις ἀποστόλων Praxeis Apostolon) was first used by Irenaeus in the late 2nd century. It is not known whether this was an existing title or one invented by Irenaeus; it does seem clear, however, that it was not given by the author.[4]
The gospel of Luke and Acts make up a two-volume work which scholars call Luke-Acts.[3] Together they account for 27.5% of the New Testament, the largest contribution attributed to a single author, providing the framework for both the Church's liturgical calendar and the historical outline into which later generations have fitted their idea of the story of Jesus and the early church.[5]
The author is not named in either volume.[6] According to Church tradition dating from the 2nd century, he was the "Luke" named as a companion of the apostle Paul in three of the letters attributed to Paul himself; this view is still sometimes advanced, but "a critical consensus emphasizes the countless contradictions between the account in Acts and the authentic Pauline letters."[7] (An example can be seen by comparing Acts' accounts of Paul's conversion (Acts 9:1-31, 22:6-21, and 26:9-23) with Paul's own statement that he remained unknown to Christians in Judea after that event (Galatians 1:17-24).)[8] He admired Paul, but his theology was significantly different from Paul's on key points and he does not (in Acts) represent Paul's views accurately.[9] He was educated, a man of means, probably urban, and someone who respected manual work, although not a worker himself; this is significant, because more high-brow writers of the time looked down on the artisans and small business-people who made up the early church of Paul and were presumably Luke's audience.[10]
The earliest possible date for the composition of Acts is set by the events with which it ends, Paul's imprisonment in Rome c.63 CE, but an early date is now rarely put forward.[11][12] The last possible date would be set by its first definite citation by another author, but there is no unanimity on this–some scholars find echoes of Acts in a work from c.95 CE called I Clement, while others see no indisputable citation until the middle of the 2nd century.[11] If Acts uses Josephus as a source, as has been proposed, then it must have been composed after 93 CE; it does not show any knowledge of Paul's letters, a fact which also supports a late date; and the social situation it reflects is one in which the faithful need "shepherds" to protect them from heretical (possibly Marcionite) "wolves", which again reflects a late date.[11] Most experts therefore date it to around 80-90 CE, although some suggest 90-110, [2] and there is evidence that it was still being substantially revised well into the 2nd century.[13]
Genre, sources and historicity of Acts[edit]
Luke (or more accurately the anonymous author of Luke-Acts) describes his work, Luke-Acts, as a "narrative" (diegesis). Acts, the second part, is widely thought of as a history, but it lacks exact analogies in Hellenistic or Jewish literature.[14] The title "Acts of the Apostles" (Praxeis Apostolon) would seem to identify it with the genre telling of the deeds and achievements of great men (praxeis), but it was not the title given by the author.[4]
Luke seems to have taken as his model the works of two respected Classical authors, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, who wrote a well-known history of Rome, and the Jewish historian Josephus, author of a history of the Jews.[15] Like them he anchors his history by dating the birth of the founder (Romulus for Dionysius, Moses for Josephus, Jesus for Luke) and like them he tells how the founder is born from God, taught authoritatively, and appeared to witnesses after death before ascending to heaven.[15] By and large the sources for Acts can only be guessed at,[16] but Luke would have had access to the Septuagint (a Greek translation of the Jewish scriptures), the gospel of Mark and the collection of "sayings of Jesus" called the Q source.[17] He transposed a few incidents from Mark's gospel to the time of the Apostles – for example, the material about "clean" and "unclean" foods in Mark 7 is used in Acts 10, and Mark's account of the accusation that Jesus has attacked the Temple (Mark 14:58) is used in a story about Stephen (Acts 6:14).)[18] There are also points of contacts (meaning suggestive parallels but something less than clear evidence) with 1 Peter, the Letter to the Hebrews, and 1 Clement.[19] Other sources can only be inferred from internal evidence – the traditional explanation of the three "we" passages, for example, is that they represent eye-witness accounts.[20] The search for such inferred sources was popular in the 19th century, but by the mid-20th it had largely been abandoned.[21]
Acts was read as a reliable history of the early church well into the post-Reformation era. By the 17th century, however, biblical scholars began to notice that it was incomplete and tendentious – its picture of a harmonious church is quite at odds with that given by Paul's letters, and it omits important events such as the deaths of both Peter and Paul. The mid-19th century scholar Ferdinand Baur suggested that Luke had re-written history to present a united Peter and Paul and advance a single orthodoxy against the Marcionites. (Marcion was a 2nd-century heretic who wished to cut Christianity off entirely from the Jews). Baur continues to have enormous influence, but today there is less interest in determining Luke's historical accuracy (although this has never died out) than in understanding his theological program.[22]
Audience and authorial intent[edit]
Luke was written to be read aloud to a group of Jesus-followers gathered in a house to share the Lord's supper.[15] The author assumes an educated Greek-speaking audience, but directs his attention to specifically Christian concerns rather than to the Greco-Roman world at large.[23] He begins his gospel with a preface addressed to Theophilus, informing him of his intention to provide an "ordered account" of events which will lead his reader to "certainty".[10] He did not write in order to provide Theophilus with historical justification – "did it happen?" – but to encourage faith – "what happened, and what does it all mean?"[24]
Acts (or Luke-Acts) is intended as a work of "edification."[25] Edification means "the empirical demonstration that virtue is superior to vice,"[26] but is not all of Luke's purpose. He also engages with the question of a Christian's proper relationship with the Roman Empire, the civil power of the day: could a Christian obey God and also Caesar? The answer is ambiguous.[27] The Romans never move against Jesus or his followers unless provoked by the Jews, in the trial scenes the Christian missionaries are always cleared of charges of violating Roman laws, and Acts ends with Paul in Rome proclaiming the Christian message under Roman protection; at the same time, Luke makes clear that the Romans, like all earthly rulers, receive their authority from Satan, while Christ is ruler of the kingdom of God. [28]
Luke-Acts can be also seen as a defense of (or "apology" for) the Jesus movement addressed to the Jews: the bulk of the speeches and sermons in Acts are addressed to Jewish audiences, with the Romans featuring as external arbiters on disputes concerning Jewish customs and law.[27] On the one hand Luke portrays the Christians as a sect of the Jews, and therefore entitled to legal protection as a recognised religion; on the other, Luke seems unclear as to the future God intends for Jews and Christians, celebrating the Jewishness of Jesus and his immediate followers while also stressing how the Jews had rejected God's promised Messiah.[29]
Manuscripts[edit]
There are two major textual variants of Luke-Acts, the Western text-type and the Alexandrian. The oldest complete Alexandrian manuscripts date from the 4th century and the oldest Western ones from the 6th, with fragments and citations going back to the 3rd. Western texts of Acts are 10% longer than Alexandrian texts, the additions tending to enhance the Jewish rejection of the Messiah and the role of the Holy Spirit, in ways that are stylistically different from the rest of Acts.[30] These conflicts suggest that Luke-Acts was still being substantially revised well into the 2nd century.[13] The majority of scholars prefer the Alexandrian (shorter) text-type over the Western as the more authentic, but this same argument would favour the Western over the Alexandrian for the gospel of Luke, as in that case the Western version is the shorter. The debate therefore continues.[30]
Structure and content[edit]
Acts 1:1-2a from the 14th century Minuscule 223
Structure[edit]
Acts has two key structural principles. The first is the geographic movement from Jerusalem, centre of God's Covenantal people the Jews, to Rome, centre of the Gentile world. This structure reaches back to the author's preceding work, the Gospel of Luke, and is signaled by parallel scenes such as Paul's utterance in Acts 19:21, which echoes Jesus' words 9:51 (Paul has Rome as his destination, as Jesus had Jerusalem). The second key element is the roles of Peter and Paul, the first representing the Jewish Christian church, the second the mission to the Gentiles.[31]
Transition: reprise of the preface addressed to Theophilus and the closing events of the gospel (Acts 1-1:26)
Petrine Christianity: the Jewish church from Jerusalem to Antioch (Acts 2:1-12:25)
2:1-8:1 - beginnings in Jerusalem
8:2-40 - the church expands to Samaria and beyond
9:1-31 - conversion of Paul
9:32-12:25 - the conversion of Cornelius, and the formation of the Antioch church
Pauline Christianity: the Gentile mission from Antioch to Rome (Acts 13:1-28:21)
13:1-14:28 - the Gentile mission is promoted from Antioch
15:1-35 - the Gentile mission is confirmed in Jerusalem
15:36-28:31 - the Gentile mission, climaxing in Paul's passion story in Rome (21:17-28:31)
Outline[edit]
Dedication to Theophilus (1:1–2)
Resurrection appearances (1:3)
Great Commission (1:4–8)
Ascension (1:9)
Second Coming Prophecy (1:10–11)
Matthias replaced Judas (1:12–26)
the Upper Room (1:13)
Holy Spirit came at Pentecost (2), see also Paraclete
Peter healed a crippled beggar (3:1–10)
Peter's speech at the Temple (3:11–26)
Peter and John before the Sanhedrin (4:1–22)
Resurrection of the dead (4:2)
Believers' Prayer (4:23–31)
Everything is shared (4:32–37)
Ananias and Sapphira (5:1–11)
Signs and Wonders (5:12–16)
Apostles before the Sanhedrin (5:17–42)
Seven Greeks appointed (6:1–7)
Saint Stephen before the Sanhedrin (6:8–7:60)
The "Cave of the Patriarchs" was located in Shechem (7:16)
"Moses was educated in all the wisdom of the Egyptians" (7:22)
First mentioning of Saul (Paul the Apostle) in the Bible (7:58)
Paul the Apostle confesses his part in the martyrdom of Stephen (7:58-60)
Saul persecuted the Church of Jerusalem (8:1–3)
Philip the Evangelist (8:4–40)
Simon Magus (8:9–24)
Ethiopian eunuch (8:26–39)
Conversion of Paul the Apostle (9:1–31, 22:1–22, 26:9–24)
Paul the Apostle confesses his active part in the martyrdom of Stephen (22:20)
Peter healed Aeneas and raised Tabitha from the dead (9:32–43)
Conversion of Cornelius (10:1–8, 24–48)
Peter's vision of a sheet with animals (10:9–23, 11:1–18)
Church of Antioch founded (11:19–30)
term "Christian" first used (11:26)
Saint James the Great executed (12:1–2)
Peter's rescue from prison (12:3–19)
Death of Herod Agrippa I [in 44] (12:20–25)
"the voice of a god" (12:22)
Mission of Barnabas and Saul (13–14)
"Saul, who was also known as Paul" (13:9)
called "gods ... in human form" (14:11)
Council of Jerusalem (15:1–35)
Paul separated from Barnabas (15:36–41)
2nd and 3rd missions (16–20)
Areopagus sermon (17:16-34)
"God...has set a day" (17:30–31)
Trial before Gallio c. 51–52 (18:12–17)
Trip to Jerusalem (21)
Before the people and the Sanhedrin (22–23)
Before Felix–Festus–Agrippa II (24–26)
Trip to Rome (27–28)
called a god on Malta (28:6)
Content[edit]
See also: Early Christianity and Jewish Christians
The Gospel of Luke began with a prologue addressed to Theophilus; Acts likewise opens with an address to Theophilus and refers to "my earlier book", almost certainly the gospel.
The apostles and other followers of Jesus meet and elect Matthias to replace Judas as a member of The Twelve. On Pentecost, the Holy Spirit descends and confers God's power on them, and Peter, along with John, preaches to many in Jerusalem, and performs Christ-like healings, casting out of evil spirits, and raising of the dead. At first many Jews follow Christ and are baptized, but the Christians begin to be increasingly persecuted by the Jews. Stephen is arrested for blasphemy, and after a trial, is found guilty and stoned by the Jews. Stephen's death marks a major turning point: the Jews have rejected the message, and henceforth it will be taken to the Gentiles.[32]
The message is taken to the Samaritans, a people rejected by Jews, and to the Gentiles. Saul of Tarsus, one of the Jews who persecuted the Christians, is converted by a vision to become a follower of Christ (an event which Luke regards as so important that he relates it three times). Peter, directed by a series of visions, preaches to Cornelius the Centurion, a Gentile God-fearer, who becomes a follower of Christ. The Holy Spirit descends on Peter and Cornelius, thus confirming that the message of eternal life in Christ is for all mankind. The Gentile church is established in Antioch (north-western Syria, the third-largest city of the empire), and here Christ's followers are first called Christians.[33]
The mission to the Gentiles is promoted from Antioch and confirmed at meeting in Jerusalem between Paul and the leadership of the Jerusalem church. Paul spends the next few years traveling through western Asia Minor and the Aegean,preaching, converting Gentiles, and founding new churches. On a visit to Jerusalem he is set on by a Jewish mob. Saved by the Roman commander, he is accused by the Jews of being a revolutionary, the "ringleader of the sect of the Nazarenes", and imprisoned. Paul asserts his right as a Roman citizen, to be tried in Rome and is sent by sea to Rome, where he spends another two years under house arrest, proclaiming the Kingdom of God and teaching the "Lord Jesus Christ". Acts ends abruptly without recording the outcome of Paul's legal troubles.[citation needed]
Theology[edit]
Paul's conversion, from Livre d'Heures d'Étienne Chevalier (c. 1450–1460), Jean Fouquet, in the Château de Chantilly.
Prior to the 1950s Luke-Acts was seen as a historical work, written to defend Christianity before the Romans or Paul against his detractors; since then, however, the tendency has been to see the work as primarily theological.[34] Luke's theology is expressed primarily through his overarching plot, the way scenes, themes and characters combine to construct his specific worldview.[35] His "salvation history" stretches from the Creation to the present time of his readers, in three ages: first, the time of "the Law and the Prophets" (Luke 16:16), the period beginning with Genesis and ending with the appearance of John the Baptist (Luke 1:5-3:1); second, the epoch of Jesus, in which the Kingdom of God was preached (Luke 3:2-24:51); and finally the period of the Church, which began when the risen Christ was taken into Heaven, and would end with his second coming.[36]
Luke-Acts is an attempt to answer a theological problem, namely how the Messiah promised to the Jews came to have an overwhelmingly non-Jewish church; the answer it provides, and its central theme, is that the message of Christ was sent to the Gentiles because the Jews rejected it.[1] This theme is introduced at the opening of the gospel of Luke, when Jesus, rejected in Nazareth, recalls that the prophets were rejected by Israel and accepted by Gentiles; at the end of the gospel he commands his disciples to preach his message to all nations, "beginning from Jerusalem." He repeats the command in Acts, telling them to preach "in Jerusalem, in all Judea and Samaria, and to the end of the Earth." They then proceed to do so, in the order outlined: first Jerusalem, then Judea, then Samaria, then the entire (Roman) world.[37]
For Luke, the Holy Spirit is the driving force behind the spread of the Christian message, and he places more emphasis on it than do any of the other evangelists. The Spirit is "poured out" at Pentecost, on the first Samaritan and Gentile believers, and on disciples who had been baptised only by John the Baptist, each time as a sign of God's approval. The Holy Spirit represents God's power (At his ascension, Jesus tells his followers, "You shall receive power when the Holy Spirit has come upon you"): through it the disciples are given speech to convert thousands in Jerusalem, forming the first church (the term is used for the first time in Acts 5).[38]
Comparison with other writings[edit]
Saint Paul Writing His Epistles, ascribed to Valentin de Boulogne, 17th century
Gospel of Luke[edit]
As the second part of the two-part work Luke-Acts, Acts has significant links to the gospel of Luke. Major turning points in the structure of Acts, for example, find parallels in Luke: the presentation of the child Jesus in the Temple parallels the opening of Acts in the Temple, Jesus' forty days of testing in the wilderness prior to his mission parallel the forty days prior to his Ascension in Acts, the mission of Jesus in Samaria and the Decapolis (the lands of the Samaritans and Gentiles) parallels the missions of the Apostles in Samaria and the Gentile lands, and so on (see Gospel of Luke). These parallels continue through both books.[39]
There are also differences between Luke and Acts, amounting at times to outright contradiction. For example, the gospel seems to place the Ascension on Easter Sunday, immediately after the Resurrection, while Acts 1 puts it forty days later.[40] There are similar conflicts over the theology. While not seriously questioning the single authorship of Luke-Acts, these differences do suggest the need for caution in seeking too much consistency in books written in essence as popular literature.[41]
Pauline epistles[edit]
Acts agrees with Paul's letters on the major outline of Paul's career: as Saul he is converted and becomes Paul the Christian missionary and apostle, establishing new churches in Asia Minor and the Aegean and struggling to free Gentile Christians from the Jewish Law. There are also agreements on many incidents, such as Paul's escape from Damascus, where he is lowered down the walls in a basket. But details of these same incidents are frequently contradictory: for example, according to Paul it was a pagan king who was trying to arrest him in Damascus, but according to Luke it was, characteristically, the Jews (2 Corinthians 11:33 and Acts 9:24). Many of the disagreements are not so immediately obvious: Acts speaks of "Christians" and "disciples", but Paul never uses either term, and there are striking differences in the accounts of Paul's relationship with the Jerusalem church and its leaders (Acts 9-15 vs. Galatians 1-2). Acts omits much from the letters, notably Paul's problems with his congregations (internal difficulties are said to be the fault of the Jews instead), and his apparent final rejection by the church leaders in Jerusalem (Acts has Paul and Barnabas deliver an offering that is accepted, a trip that has no mention in the letters). There are also major differences between Acts on Paul on Christology (the understanding of Christ's nature), eschatology (understanding of the "last things"), and apostleship.[42]
See also[edit]
Historical reliability of the Acts of the Apostles
List of Gospels
List of omitted Bible verses
Textual variants in the Acts of the Apostles
Acts of the Apostles (genre)
Acts of Andrew
Acts of Barnabas
Acts of John
Acts of the Martyrs
Acts of Paul
Acts of Paul and Thecla
Acts of Peter
Acts of Peter and Paul
Acts of Peter and the Twelve
Acts of Pilate
Acts of Philip
Acts of Thomas
Acts of Timothy
The Lost Chapter of the Acts of the Apostles
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Burkett 2002, p. 263.
^ Jump up to: a b Charlesworth 2008, p. no page number.
^ Jump up to: a b Burkett 2002, p. 195.
^ Jump up to: a b Matthews 2011, p. 12.
Jump up ^ Boring 2012, p. 556.
Jump up ^ Burkett 2002, p. 196.
Jump up ^ Theissen & Merz 1998, p. 32.
Jump up ^ Perkins 1998, p. 253.
Jump up ^ Boring 2012, p. 590.
^ Jump up to: a b Green 1997, p. 35.
^ Jump up to: a b c Boring 2012, p. 587.
Jump up ^ Theissen & Merz 1996 [tr. 1998], p. 32.
^ Jump up to: a b Perkins 2009, p. 250-253.
Jump up ^ Aune 1988, p. 77.
^ Jump up to: a b c Balch 2003, p. 1104.
Jump up ^ Bruce 1990, p. 40.
Jump up ^ Boring 2012, p. 577.
Jump up ^ Witherington 1998, p. 8.
Jump up ^ Boring 2012, p. 578.
Jump up ^ Bruce 1990, p. 40-41.
Jump up ^ Boring 2012, p. 579.
Jump up ^ Holladay 2011, p. no page numbers.
Jump up ^ Green 1995, p. 16-17.
Jump up ^ Green 1997, p. 36.
Jump up ^ Fitzmyer 1998, p. 55-65.
Jump up ^ Aune 1988, p. 80.
^ Jump up to: a b Pickett 2011, p. 6-7.
Jump up ^ Boring 2012, p. 562.
Jump up ^ Boring 2012, p. 563.
^ Jump up to: a b Thompson 2010, p. 332.
Jump up ^ Boring 2012, p. 569-570.
Jump up ^ Burkett 2002, p. 265.
Jump up ^ Burkett 2002, p. 266.
Jump up ^ Buckwalter 1996, p. 6.
Jump up ^ Allen 2009, p. 326.
Jump up ^ Evans 2011, p. no page numbers.
Jump up ^ Burkett 2002, p. 264.
Jump up ^ Burkett 2002, p. 268-270.
Jump up ^ Tremmel 2011, p. 59.
Jump up ^ Zwiep 2010, p. 39.
Jump up ^ Parsons 1993, p. 17-18.
Jump up ^ Boring 2012, p. 581, 588-590.The Acts of the Apostles (Ancient Greek: Πράξεις τῶν Ἀποστόλων, Práxeis tôn Apostólōn; Latin: Āctūs Apostolōrum), often referred to simply as Acts, is the fifth book of the New Testament; it tells of the founding of the Christian church and the spread of its message to the Roman empire.[1]
Acts is the second half of a two-part work, referred to as Luke-Acts, by the same anonymous author, referred to as Luke the Evangelist, and usually dated to around 80-90 CE.[2][3] The first part, the Gospel of Luke, tells how God fulfilled his plan for the world's salvation through the life, death and resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth, the promised Messiah. Acts continues the story of Christianity in the 1st century, beginning with the Ascension of Christ. The early chapters, set in Jerusalem, describe the Day of Pentecost (the coming of the Holy Spirit) and the growth of the church in Jerusalem. Initially the Jews are receptive to the Christian message, but soon they turn against the followers of the Messiah. Rejected by the Jews, under the guidance of the Apostle Peter the message is taken to the Gentiles. The later chapters tell of Paul's conversion, his mission in Asia Minor and the Aegean, and finally his imprisonment in Rome, where, as the book ends, he awaits trial.
Luke-Acts is an attempt to answer a theological problem, namely how the Messiah of the Jews came to have an overwhelmingly non-Jewish church; the answer it provides, and its central theme, is that the message of Christ was sent to the Gentiles because the Jews rejected it.[1]
Contents [hide]
1 Composition and setting
1.1 Title, unity of Luke-Acts, authorship and date
1.2 Genre, sources and historicity of Acts
1.3 Audience and authorial intent
1.4 Manuscripts
2 Structure and content
2.1 Structure
2.2 Outline
2.3 Content
3 Theology
4 Comparison with other writings
4.1 Gospel of Luke
4.2 Pauline epistles
5 See also
6 References
7 Bibliography
8 External links
Composition and setting[edit]
Main article: Authorship of Luke–Acts
Ministry of the Apostles: Russian icon by Fyodor Zubov, 1660
Title, unity of Luke-Acts, authorship and date[edit]
The title "Acts of the Apostles" (Greek Πράξεις ἀποστόλων Praxeis Apostolon) was first used by Irenaeus in the late 2nd century. It is not known whether this was an existing title or one invented by Irenaeus; it does seem clear, however, that it was not given by the author.[4]
The gospel of Luke and Acts make up a two-volume work which scholars call Luke-Acts.[3] Together they account for 27.5% of the New Testament, the largest contribution attributed to a single author, providing the framework for both the Church's liturgical calendar and the historical outline into which later generations have fitted their idea of the story of Jesus and the early church.[5]
The author is not named in either volume.[6] According to Church tradition dating from the 2nd century, he was the "Luke" named as a companion of the apostle Paul in three of the letters attributed to Paul himself; this view is still sometimes advanced, but "a critical consensus emphasizes the countless contradictions between the account in Acts and the authentic Pauline letters."[7] (An example can be seen by comparing Acts' accounts of Paul's conversion (Acts 9:1-31, 22:6-21, and 26:9-23) with Paul's own statement that he remained unknown to Christians in Judea after that event (Galatians 1:17-24).)[8] He admired Paul, but his theology was significantly different from Paul's on key points and he does not (in Acts) represent Paul's views accurately.[9] He was educated, a man of means, probably urban, and someone who respected manual work, although not a worker himself; this is significant, because more high-brow writers of the time looked down on the artisans and small business-people who made up the early church of Paul and were presumably Luke's audience.[10]
The earliest possible date for the composition of Acts is set by the events with which it ends, Paul's imprisonment in Rome c.63 CE, but an early date is now rarely put forward.[11][12] The last possible date would be set by its first definite citation by another author, but there is no unanimity on this–some scholars find echoes of Acts in a work from c.95 CE called I Clement, while others see no indisputable citation until the middle of the 2nd century.[11] If Acts uses Josephus as a source, as has been proposed, then it must have been composed after 93 CE; it does not show any knowledge of Paul's letters, a fact which also supports a late date; and the social situation it reflects is one in which the faithful need "shepherds" to protect them from heretical (possibly Marcionite) "wolves", which again reflects a late date.[11] Most experts therefore date it to around 80-90 CE, although some suggest 90-110, [2] and there is evidence that it was still being substantially revised well into the 2nd century.[13]
Genre, sources and historicity of Acts[edit]
Luke (or more accurately the anonymous author of Luke-Acts) describes his work, Luke-Acts, as a "narrative" (diegesis). Acts, the second part, is widely thought of as a history, but it lacks exact analogies in Hellenistic or Jewish literature.[14] The title "Acts of the Apostles" (Praxeis Apostolon) would seem to identify it with the genre telling of the deeds and achievements of great men (praxeis), but it was not the title given by the author.[4]
Luke seems to have taken as his model the works of two respected Classical authors, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, who wrote a well-known history of Rome, and the Jewish historian Josephus, author of a history of the Jews.[15] Like them he anchors his history by dating the birth of the founder (Romulus for Dionysius, Moses for Josephus, Jesus for Luke) and like them he tells how the founder is born from God, taught authoritatively, and appeared to witnesses after death before ascending to heaven.[15] By and large the sources for Acts can only be guessed at,[16] but Luke would have had access to the Septuagint (a Greek translation of the Jewish scriptures), the gospel of Mark and the collection of "sayings of Jesus" called the Q source.[17] He transposed a few incidents from Mark's gospel to the time of the Apostles – for example, the material about "clean" and "unclean" foods in Mark 7 is used in Acts 10, and Mark's account of the accusation that Jesus has attacked the Temple (Mark 14:58) is used in a story about Stephen (Acts 6:14).)[18] There are also points of contacts (meaning suggestive parallels but something less than clear evidence) with 1 Peter, the Letter to the Hebrews, and 1 Clement.[19] Other sources can only be inferred from internal evidence – the traditional explanation of the three "we" passages, for example, is that they represent eye-witness accounts.[20] The search for such inferred sources was popular in the 19th century, but by the mid-20th it had largely been abandoned.[21]
Acts was read as a reliable history of the early church well into the post-Reformation era. By the 17th century, however, biblical scholars began to notice that it was incomplete and tendentious – its picture of a harmonious church is quite at odds with that given by Paul's letters, and it omits important events such as the deaths of both Peter and Paul. The mid-19th century scholar Ferdinand Baur suggested that Luke had re-written history to present a united Peter and Paul and advance a single orthodoxy against the Marcionites. (Marcion was a 2nd-century heretic who wished to cut Christianity off entirely from the Jews). Baur continues to have enormous influence, but today there is less interest in determining Luke's historical accuracy (although this has never died out) than in understanding his theological program.[22]
Audience and authorial intent[edit]
Luke was written to be read aloud to a group of Jesus-followers gathered in a house to share the Lord's supper.[15] The author assumes an educated Greek-speaking audience, but directs his attention to specifically Christian concerns rather than to the Greco-Roman world at large.[23] He begins his gospel with a preface addressed to Theophilus, informing him of his intention to provide an "ordered account" of events which will lead his reader to "certainty".[10] He did not write in order to provide Theophilus with historical justification – "did it happen?" – but to encourage faith – "what happened, and what does it all mean?"[24]
Acts (or Luke-Acts) is intended as a work of "edification."[25] Edification means "the empirical demonstration that virtue is superior to vice,"[26] but is not all of Luke's purpose. He also engages with the question of a Christian's proper relationship with the Roman Empire, the civil power of the day: could a Christian obey God and also Caesar? The answer is ambiguous.[27] The Romans never move against Jesus or his followers unless provoked by the Jews, in the trial scenes the Christian missionaries are always cleared of charges of violating Roman laws, and Acts ends with Paul in Rome proclaiming the Christian message under Roman protection; at the same time, Luke makes clear that the Romans, like all earthly rulers, receive their authority from Satan, while Christ is ruler of the kingdom of God. [28]
Luke-Acts can be also seen as a defense of (or "apology" for) the Jesus movement addressed to the Jews: the bulk of the speeches and sermons in Acts are addressed to Jewish audiences, with the Romans featuring as external arbiters on disputes concerning Jewish customs and law.[27] On the one hand Luke portrays the Christians as a sect of the Jews, and therefore entitled to legal protection as a recognised religion; on the other, Luke seems unclear as to the future God intends for Jews and Christians, celebrating the Jewishness of Jesus and his immediate followers while also stressing how the Jews had rejected God's promised Messiah.[29]
Manuscripts[edit]
There are two major textual variants of Luke-Acts, the Western text-type and the Alexandrian. The oldest complete Alexandrian manuscripts date from the 4th century and the oldest Western ones from the 6th, with fragments and citations going back to the 3rd. Western texts of Acts are 10% longer than Alexandrian texts, the additions tending to enhance the Jewish rejection of the Messiah and the role of the Holy Spirit, in ways that are stylistically different from the rest of Acts.[30] These conflicts suggest that Luke-Acts was still being substantially revised well into the 2nd century.[13] The majority of scholars prefer the Alexandrian (shorter) text-type over the Western as the more authentic, but this same argument would favour the Western over the Alexandrian for the gospel of Luke, as in that case the Western version is the shorter. The debate therefore continues.[30]
Structure and content[edit]
Acts 1:1-2a from the 14th century Minuscule 223
Structure[edit]
Acts has two key structural principles. The first is the geographic movement from Jerusalem, centre of God's Covenantal people the Jews, to Rome, centre of the Gentile world. This structure reaches back to the author's preceding work, the Gospel of Luke, and is signaled by parallel scenes such as Paul's utterance in Acts 19:21, which echoes Jesus' words 9:51 (Paul has Rome as his destination, as Jesus had Jerusalem). The second key element is the roles of Peter and Paul, the first representing the Jewish Christian church, the second the mission to the Gentiles.[31]
Transition: reprise of the preface addressed to Theophilus and the closing events of the gospel (Acts 1-1:26)
Petrine Christianity: the Jewish church from Jerusalem to Antioch (Acts 2:1-12:25)
2:1-8:1 - beginnings in Jerusalem
8:2-40 - the church expands to Samaria and beyond
9:1-31 - conversion of Paul
9:32-12:25 - the conversion of Cornelius, and the formation of the Antioch church
Pauline Christianity: the Gentile mission from Antioch to Rome (Acts 13:1-28:21)
13:1-14:28 - the Gentile mission is promoted from Antioch
15:1-35 - the Gentile mission is confirmed in Jerusalem
15:36-28:31 - the Gentile mission, climaxing in Paul's passion story in Rome (21:17-28:31)
Outline[edit]
Dedication to Theophilus (1:1–2)
Resurrection appearances (1:3)
Great Commission (1:4–8)
Ascension (1:9)
Second Coming Prophecy (1:10–11)
Matthias replaced Judas (1:12–26)
the Upper Room (1:13)
Holy Spirit came at Pentecost (2), see also Paraclete
Peter healed a crippled beggar (3:1–10)
Peter's speech at the Temple (3:11–26)
Peter and John before the Sanhedrin (4:1–22)
Resurrection of the dead (4:2)
Believers' Prayer (4:23–31)
Everything is shared (4:32–37)
Ananias and Sapphira (5:1–11)
Signs and Wonders (5:12–16)
Apostles before the Sanhedrin (5:17–42)
Seven Greeks appointed (6:1–7)
Saint Stephen before the Sanhedrin (6:8–7:60)
The "Cave of the Patriarchs" was located in Shechem (7:16)
"Moses was educated in all the wisdom of the Egyptians" (7:22)
First mentioning of Saul (Paul the Apostle) in the Bible (7:58)
Paul the Apostle confesses his part in the martyrdom of Stephen (7:58-60)
Saul persecuted the Church of Jerusalem (8:1–3)
Philip the Evangelist (8:4–40)
Simon Magus (8:9–24)
Ethiopian eunuch (8:26–39)
Conversion of Paul the Apostle (9:1–31, 22:1–22, 26:9–24)
Paul the Apostle confesses his active part in the martyrdom of Stephen (22:20)
Peter healed Aeneas and raised Tabitha from the dead (9:32–43)
Conversion of Cornelius (10:1–8, 24–48)
Peter's vision of a sheet with animals (10:9–23, 11:1–18)
Church of Antioch founded (11:19–30)
term "Christian" first used (11:26)
Saint James the Great executed (12:1–2)
Peter's rescue from prison (12:3–19)
Death of Herod Agrippa I [in 44] (12:20–25)
"the voice of a god" (12:22)
Mission of Barnabas and Saul (13–14)
"Saul, who was also known as Paul" (13:9)
called "gods ... in human form" (14:11)
Council of Jerusalem (15:1–35)
Paul separated from Barnabas (15:36–41)
2nd and 3rd missions (16–20)
Areopagus sermon (17:16-34)
"God...has set a day" (17:30–31)
Trial before Gallio c. 51–52 (18:12–17)
Trip to Jerusalem (21)
Before the people and the Sanhedrin (22–23)
Before Felix–Festus–Agrippa II (24–26)
Trip to Rome (27–28)
called a god on Malta (28:6)
Content[edit]
See also: Early Christianity and Jewish Christians
The Gospel of Luke began with a prologue addressed to Theophilus; Acts likewise opens with an address to Theophilus and refers to "my earlier book", almost certainly the gospel.
The apostles and other followers of Jesus meet and elect Matthias to replace Judas as a member of The Twelve. On Pentecost, the Holy Spirit descends and confers God's power on them, and Peter, along with John, preaches to many in Jerusalem, and performs Christ-like healings, casting out of evil spirits, and raising of the dead. At first many Jews follow Christ and are baptized, but the Christians begin to be increasingly persecuted by the Jews. Stephen is arrested for blasphemy, and after a trial, is found guilty and stoned by the Jews. Stephen's death marks a major turning point: the Jews have rejected the message, and henceforth it will be taken to the Gentiles.[32]
The message is taken to the Samaritans, a people rejected by Jews, and to the Gentiles. Saul of Tarsus, one of the Jews who persecuted the Christians, is converted by a vision to become a follower of Christ (an event which Luke regards as so important that he relates it three times). Peter, directed by a series of visions, preaches to Cornelius the Centurion, a Gentile God-fearer, who becomes a follower of Christ. The Holy Spirit descends on Peter and Cornelius, thus confirming that the message of eternal life in Christ is for all mankind. The Gentile church is established in Antioch (north-western Syria, the third-largest city of the empire), and here Christ's followers are first called Christians.[33]
The mission to the Gentiles is promoted from Antioch and confirmed at meeting in Jerusalem between Paul and the leadership of the Jerusalem church. Paul spends the next few years traveling through western Asia Minor and the Aegean,preaching, converting Gentiles, and founding new churches. On a visit to Jerusalem he is set on by a Jewish mob. Saved by the Roman commander, he is accused by the Jews of being a revolutionary, the "ringleader of the sect of the Nazarenes", and imprisoned. Paul asserts his right as a Roman citizen, to be tried in Rome and is sent by sea to Rome, where he spends another two years under house arrest, proclaiming the Kingdom of God and teaching the "Lord Jesus Christ". Acts ends abruptly without recording the outcome of Paul's legal troubles.[citation needed]
Theology[edit]
Paul's conversion, from Livre d'Heures d'Étienne Chevalier (c. 1450–1460), Jean Fouquet, in the Château de Chantilly.
Prior to the 1950s Luke-Acts was seen as a historical work, written to defend Christianity before the Romans or Paul against his detractors; since then, however, the tendency has been to see the work as primarily theological.[34] Luke's theology is expressed primarily through his overarching plot, the way scenes, themes and characters combine to construct his specific worldview.[35] His "salvation history" stretches from the Creation to the present time of his readers, in three ages: first, the time of "the Law and the Prophets" (Luke 16:16), the period beginning with Genesis and ending with the appearance of John the Baptist (Luke 1:5-3:1); second, the epoch of Jesus, in which the Kingdom of God was preached (Luke 3:2-24:51); and finally the period of the Church, which began when the risen Christ was taken into Heaven, and would end with his second coming.[36]
Luke-Acts is an attempt to answer a theological problem, namely how the Messiah promised to the Jews came to have an overwhelmingly non-Jewish church; the answer it provides, and its central theme, is that the message of Christ was sent to the Gentiles because the Jews rejected it.[1] This theme is introduced at the opening of the gospel of Luke, when Jesus, rejected in Nazareth, recalls that the prophets were rejected by Israel and accepted by Gentiles; at the end of the gospel he commands his disciples to preach his message to all nations, "beginning from Jerusalem." He repeats the command in Acts, telling them to preach "in Jerusalem, in all Judea and Samaria, and to the end of the Earth." They then proceed to do so, in the order outlined: first Jerusalem, then Judea, then Samaria, then the entire (Roman) world.[37]
For Luke, the Holy Spirit is the driving force behind the spread of the Christian message, and he places more emphasis on it than do any of the other evangelists. The Spirit is "poured out" at Pentecost, on the first Samaritan and Gentile believers, and on disciples who had been baptised only by John the Baptist, each time as a sign of God's approval. The Holy Spirit represents God's power (At his ascension, Jesus tells his followers, "You shall receive power when the Holy Spirit has come upon you"): through it the disciples are given speech to convert thousands in Jerusalem, forming the first church (the term is used for the first time in Acts 5).[38]
Comparison with other writings[edit]
Saint Paul Writing His Epistles, ascribed to Valentin de Boulogne, 17th century
Gospel of Luke[edit]
As the second part of the two-part work Luke-Acts, Acts has significant links to the gospel of Luke. Major turning points in the structure of Acts, for example, find parallels in Luke: the presentation of the child Jesus in the Temple parallels the opening of Acts in the Temple, Jesus' forty days of testing in the wilderness prior to his mission parallel the forty days prior to his Ascension in Acts, the mission of Jesus in Samaria and the Decapolis (the lands of the Samaritans and Gentiles) parallels the missions of the Apostles in Samaria and the Gentile lands, and so on (see Gospel of Luke). These parallels continue through both books.[39]
There are also differences between Luke and Acts, amounting at times to outright contradiction. For example, the gospel seems to place the Ascension on Easter Sunday, immediately after the Resurrection, while Acts 1 puts it forty days later.[40] There are similar conflicts over the theology. While not seriously questioning the single authorship of Luke-Acts, these differences do suggest the need for caution in seeking too much consistency in books written in essence as popular literature.[41]
Pauline epistles[edit]
Acts agrees with Paul's letters on the major outline of Paul's career: as Saul he is converted and becomes Paul the Christian missionary and apostle, establishing new churches in Asia Minor and the Aegean and struggling to free Gentile Christians from the Jewish Law. There are also agreements on many incidents, such as Paul's escape from Damascus, where he is lowered down the walls in a basket. But details of these same incidents are frequently contradictory: for example, according to Paul it was a pagan king who was trying to arrest him in Damascus, but according to Luke it was, characteristically, the Jews (2 Corinthians 11:33 and Acts 9:24). Many of the disagreements are not so immediately obvious: Acts speaks of "Christians" and "disciples", but Paul never uses either term, and there are striking differences in the accounts of Paul's relationship with the Jerusalem church and its leaders (Acts 9-15 vs. Galatians 1-2). Acts omits much from the letters, notably Paul's problems with his congregations (internal difficulties are said to be the fault of the Jews instead), and his apparent final rejection by the church leaders in Jerusalem (Acts has Paul and Barnabas deliver an offering that is accepted, a trip that has no mention in the letters). There are also major differences between Acts on Paul on Christology (the understanding of Christ's nature), eschatology (understanding of the "last things"), and apostleship.[42]
See also[edit]
Historical reliability of the Acts of the Apostles
List of Gospels
List of omitted Bible verses
Textual variants in the Acts of the Apostles
Acts of the Apostles (genre)
Acts of Andrew
Acts of Barnabas
Acts of John
Acts of the Martyrs
Acts of Paul
Acts of Paul and Thecla
Acts of Peter
Acts of Peter and Paul
Acts of Peter and the Twelve
Acts of Pilate
Acts of Philip
Acts of Thomas
Acts of Timothy
The Lost Chapter of the Acts of the Apostles
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Burkett 2002, p. 263.
^ Jump up to: a b Charlesworth 2008, p. no page number.
^ Jump up to: a b Burkett 2002, p. 195.
^ Jump up to: a b Matthews 2011, p. 12.
Jump up ^ Boring 2012, p. 556.
Jump up ^ Burkett 2002, p. 196.
Jump up ^ Theissen & Merz 1998, p. 32.
Jump up ^ Perkins 1998, p. 253.
Jump up ^ Boring 2012, p. 590.
^ Jump up to: a b Green 1997, p. 35.
^ Jump up to: a b c Boring 2012, p. 587.
Jump up ^ Theissen & Merz 1996 [tr. 1998], p. 32.
^ Jump up to: a b Perkins 2009, p. 250-253.
Jump up ^ Aune 1988, p. 77.
^ Jump up to: a b c Balch 2003, p. 1104.
Jump up ^ Bruce 1990, p. 40.
Jump up ^ Boring 2012, p. 577.
Jump up ^ Witherington 1998, p. 8.
Jump up ^ Boring 2012, p. 578.
Jump up ^ Bruce 1990, p. 40-41.
Jump up ^ Boring 2012, p. 579.
Jump up ^ Holladay 2011, p. no page numbers.
Jump up ^ Green 1995, p. 16-17.
Jump up ^ Green 1997, p. 36.
Jump up ^ Fitzmyer 1998, p. 55-65.
Jump up ^ Aune 1988, p. 80.
^ Jump up to: a b Pickett 2011, p. 6-7.
Jump up ^ Boring 2012, p. 562.
Jump up ^ Boring 2012, p. 563.
^ Jump up to: a b Thompson 2010, p. 332.
Jump up ^ Boring 2012, p. 569-570.
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Jump up ^ Allen 2009, p. 326.
Jump up ^ Evans 2011, p. no page numbers.
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Jump up ^ Burkett 2002, p. 268-270.
Jump up ^ Tremmel 2011, p. 59.
Jump up ^ Zwiep 2010, p. 39.
Jump up ^ Parsons 1993, p. 17-18.
Jump up ^ Boring 2012, p. 581, 588-590.
